Infants born with CS delivery following a period of labor have a higher and more developed ANS tone compared to those born with CS without labor (Mulkey et al., 2019). Indeed, warm incubators tend to increase SNS tone and reduce PNS activity, whereas the opposite is true for incubators 2C colder than newborns' temperature (Franco et al., 2003; Stphan-Blanchard et al., 2013). The effect of labor on maternal and fetal circulating catecholamines. Obstet Gynecol. B. doi: 10.1111/mono.v80.3, DiPietro, J. Dalton KJ, Dawes GS, Patrick JE. In particular, by 6 WGA, the first parasympathetic ganglia can be detected (Mller and O'Rahilly, 1989) and, by 10 WGA, the sympathetic trunks have appeared throughout the vertebral column (Kruepunga et al., 2021) and, apart from the colonic loop, the extrinsic innervation of the enteric nervous system (ENS) is complete (Kruepunga et al., 2020). Osteopath. Integr. Front. doi: 10.1016/0020-7292(84)90018-3, Schneebaum Sender, N., Govindan, R. B., Whitehead, M. T., Massaro, A. N., Metzler, M., Wang, J., et al. Two powerful and fundamentally different forms of plasticity involved in this process are Hebbian mechanisms, which alter synaptic connectivity in a synapse-specific manner, and homeostatic mechanisms that maintain stable function by globally adjusting overall synaptic weights and neuronal excitability. Smoke and alcohol exposure can induce in premature newborns higher sympathetic function, lower parasympathetic function, and had less cardiac autonomic adaptability (Mulkey and du Plessis, 2019). Pathol. Dev. (2015). doi: 10.2139/ssrn.3441806, Bernardes, J., Gonalves, H., Ayres-de-Campos, D., and Rocha, A. P. (2008). doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01099.x, DiPietro, J. The circadian dynamics of fHR is synchronized with the maternal rhythm of the activity at rest, HR, cortisol, melatonin, and body temperature. Autonomic responses to sighs in healthy infants and in victims of sudden infant death. (2003). This hypothesis could be reinforced by the evidence that yawning seems to rely on interoception, the inner sense that constantly monitors the internal milieu and for which the vagus nerve plays a central role, and to be processed by the CAN (in particular, insula, hypothalamus, locus coeruleus, and reticular activating system) (Walusinski, 2006). doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.10.009, Gernand, A. D., Schulze, K. J., Stewart, C. P., West, K. P., and Christian, P. (2016). doi: 10.5546/aap.2020.eng.e246, Casagrande, D., Gugala, Z., Clark, S. M., and Lindsey, R. W. (2015). ArXiv200808625 Q-Bio. This would explain why ANS impairment, for instance, due to prematurity, can make newborns more vulnerable to SIDS (Horne, 2018). General movements analysis can differentiate specific movement patterns, concerning a specific part of the fetal body, from non-specific movement patterns, involving more than one body segment (de Vries et al., 1982, 1985). In particular, a steep rise in PNS tone can be detected around 3738 WGA and basal fetal cardiovascular function becomes more influenced by the PNS. Gynecol. Premature infant responses to noise reduction by earmuffs: effects on behavioral and physiologic measures. Furthermore, ANS alterations in newborns can lead to neurological dysfunctions including cerebral palsy at 2 years of age (Dimitrijevi et al., 2016). The degree of hypertension and the amount of deceleration were closely related, although some deceleration remained when the transient hypertension was prevented by adrenergic blockade. The influence of corticosteroids on fetal heart rate variability: a systematic review of the literature. Semin. Moreover, considering the correlation between the gut-brain-microbiome axis and immune system via neuroendocrine signaling (Aidy et al., 2015; Vitetta et al., 2018; Fuhler, 2020), these maternal affections can affect fetal neurodevelopment and potentially lead to adverse health outcomes later in life (Borre et al., 2014; Abdel-Haq et al., 2018; Tong and Kalish, 2020; Bordeleau et al., 2021). (2017). With the passing of the weeks, however, sex-specific differences in the sympathovagal balance start to be detected. Early Hum. 1977;7(6):373-6. Psychol. The different patterns of ANS development could also be due both to a different sex-specific susceptibility to environmental stimuli and a different neurodevelopmental trajectory of male and female fetuses, which could lead to sex-specific developmental intervals of maximum susceptibility to environmental exposures (Buss et al., 2009; Bale, 2016). Antenatal interventions based upon fetal surveillance of the daily opioid-exposed fetus: a descriptive analysis. Exposure to sOT may therefore lead to epigenetic remodeling in the infant (Tribe et al., 2018; Uvns-Moberg et al., 2019), and the documented presence in animal models of specific binding for oxytocin in the vagal dorsal motor nucleus during early embryonic life (Tribollet et al., 1989) suggests a strict link between oxytocin and vagus nerve. Consequently, the fetal and infant capacity to homeostatically adapt to the environment could be impaired (Van den Bergh and Mulder, 2012). 9:593889. doi: 10.3389/fped.2021.593889, Goldaber, K. G., Gilstrap, L. C., Leveno, K. J., Dax, J. S., and McIntire, D. D. (1991). Psychol. Moreover, an exploratory study conducted on twins, highlighted that sex-specific differences in fetuses can be noticed both in linear and non-linear fHR metrics. Regarding the ANS, brainstem, and hypothalamic centers form several connections with the other CAN structures, that is, insula, anterior cingulate gyrus, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and amygdala (Mulkey and du Plessis, 2018; Schlatterer et al., 2021). Some symptoms, such as PGP and low back pain, could be physiological consequences of the musculoskeletal adaptations of the maternal body, due to an increasing uterine volume (Davis, 1996; Vermani et al., 2010; Casagrande et al., 2015; Sehmbi et al., 2017; Lutterodt et al., 2019). This in utero programming effect on the fetal HPA axis could last until adulthood: there are recent observations of altered R-R interval variability in adult offspring exposed to elevated fetal sGCs (Sheng et al., 2020), a result that deserves further investigations to better understand the sGCs potential role in neurodevelopmental altered pathways. 105, 749755. Gynecol. The matches collected between the placental and fetal gut and lung microbiomes seem to be associated with neonatal airway complications and enterocolitis (Al Alam et al., 2020; Parris et al., 2021), possibly affecting the ANS-mediated control mechanisms of these systems. J. Pediatr. Neuropharmacology 51, 6066. Dev. doi: 10.1212/wnl.56.10.1278, Kamendi, H., Stephens, C., Dergacheva, O., Wang, X., Huang, Z.-G., Bouairi, E., et al.

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